PSAc
The Genres and Life Settings of the Psalms
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As most psalms were originally designed for the regular worship services, especially at the Jerusalem temple, our best path for surveying the various genres or types of psalms would be to imagine the path that pilgrims would have followed in the performance of psalms. We should begin with pilgrim psalms that reflect the journeys both to and from the temple. Once we arrive at the temple we must participate in the rite of passage, the liturgies that clarify who may enter this sacred space. Then we would engage in the singing of hymns appropriate to the annual festivals of Passover, Weeks, and Tabernacles, including the “songs of Zion” and the psalms of Yahweh’s kingship.
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As noted above, the book of Psalms also contains special prayers and thanksgivings for particular groups and needs. As prayer psalms of the individual reflect little connection to a sacred site and its rituals, they were probably performed wherever needed. But once such prayer psalms were answered, their corresponding psalms of thanksgiving would have been performed before a congregation, where this public testimony could have taken place. In cases of national emergencies, such as an impending battle, royal psalms on behalf of the king and his army would have been offered at the Jerusalem temple, as would royal psalms commemorating the enthronement of the king’s successor.
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Pilgrim Psalms
A prophetic oracle of hope contained in the book of Isaiah discloses the function of song both during the journey to and the observance of a pilgrim festival: “You shall have a song as in the night when a holy festival is kept; and gladness of heart, as when one sets out to the sound of the flute to go to the mountain of the Lord, to the Rock of Israel” (Isa 30:29).
Pilgrim psalms initiated the journey to the temple during the three annual festivals.
Some psalms of the individual are particularly suited for pilgrims: Pss 23; 27 (possibly); 42–43; 61; 63; 84. The “Psalms of Ascents” (Pss 120–134), especially Psalms 121 and 122, appear to be a collection designed especially for pilgrims visiting the Second Temple. The psalms reflect on the journey to temple, to which Yahweh gathers His people within His protective sanctuary (see esp. Pss 23 and 61).
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Temple Entry Liturgies
Temple entry psalms reflect the rites of entering sacred space: the righteous may enter and enjoy the benefits of entering God’s presence and the wicked may not and so will perish.
Psalms 15 and 24 (esp. Ps 24:3–6), along with Isaiah 33:14b–16, contain (a) a double question of who may sojourn on Yahweh’s holy hill, (b) a reply listing qualifications, and (c) a promise for those who enter. As the longer list of qualifications in Psalm 15 may be counted as 10, so these psalms appear to be a form of priestly-prophetic “torah” proclaimed to the assembled pilgrims.
Psalm 24 locates its entry “torah” within the context of the entry of “the King of Glory,” whose presence was probably symbolized by the cherubim-ark, through the sacred “gates.”
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While most commentators have assigned Psalms 5, 26, 28, 36, and 52 to various genres, mostly individual laments, none of them actually contains a formal lament. Their reference to the wicked mentions no threat to the speaker, nor lament for victims. As the description of the “righteous” in Psalms 15 and 24 does not identify a particular person, so the descriptions of the “wicked” in Psalms 5, 26, 28, 36, and 52 do not report on particular persons or social groups in ancient Israel. Rather, these descriptions are simply character profiles, focusing on deceitful speech. As in the case of most psalms, the language here derives primarily from the symbolism and metaphors of the temple, not from personal or social circumstances.
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Each of these psalms shows affinities to the temple entry liturgies contained in Psalms 15 and 24, where there are indications of judgment and the parting of the ways—the “righteous” who may enter and the “wicked” who may not. These psalms also appear to locate their performance at the temple, and the “I” in these psalms appears to speak on behalf of other worshipers. Hence, these psalms were probably used as a form of a congregational response to the temple entry torahs proclaimed by the priests.
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These temple entry liturgies underscore the momentous moment of meeting with God, as the pilgrims seek to enter His holy/sacred space. The worshiper’s character must be appropriate to the character of the God they claim to worship. The litmus test God employs to determine the true color of His worshipers is dipped into their daily, public lives, not the private corners of “spirituality” or of their “personal” relationship with God. How they treat their neighbors Yahweh considers symptomatic of the inner life. There is neither mere ritualism or privatized piety. Behind claims to spirituality, there must be concrete social behaviors. The psalms thus share with the biblical Prophets the notion that social justice is a prerequisite for authentic worship.
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Corporate Hymns
Once the pilgrims were ritually admitted into the sacred space of the temple, they could participate in the worship led by the Levitical choirs as they sang the hymnic praises (tehillah), which extol God’s attributes and deeds in a general or summary fashion. So Psalm 145 acclaims His “mighty acts” generally as “great” and “good,” while Psalm 136 narrates particular events of the exodus deliverance.
Corporate hymns were performed by Levitical choirs, in song and ritual, at the major festivals. They extol God’s attributes and deeds in a general or summary fashion.
The psalms generally regarded as hymns are Psalms 8, 29, 33, 65, 66, 68, 75 (also combining elements of thanksgiving and prophecy), 78 (though explicitly “teaching”), 81, 92 (with elements of individual thanksgiving), 95, 100, 103, 104, 105, 107 (though a form of corporate thanksgiving), 111 (with elements of thanksgiving and wisdom psalms), 113, 114, 115 (with elements of corporate prayer), 117, 118 (with elements of individual thanksgiving), 135, 136, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150. Some of these hymns also contain prophetic oracles (75:2–5; 81:6–16; 95:8–11). Most begin with an imperatival call to praise, invoking the congregation to “sing,” “give thanks,” and “praise” (especially with the familiar, “Hallelu-Yah,” i.e., “Praise [pl.] the Lord”), and often followed with an introductory summary (e.g., “for he is good”). The body of the Psalm extols God’s greatness and goodness.
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Some hymns were evidently performed to accompany temple rituals. Psalm 68, for example, describes Yahweh’s “procession” into “the sanctuary” as a concurrent event (Ps 68:24). It opens with the “song of the ark” (cf. Num 10:35), which Moses had sung at the beginning of each day as the ark led the people through the wilderness. As this song invokes God to “arise,” we should imagine this imperative initiates a procession led by the cherubim-ark, which symbolized both Yahweh’s throne and chariot, as it “ascended” into the sanctuary. This ritual procession recalls Yahweh’s “march through the wilderness” (Ps 68:7) as He journeyed from His sacred mountain of “Sinai” and finally “ascended” into “his sanctuary” (Ps 68:17–18) now in “Jerusalem” (Ps 68:29). Yahweh “rides” the “clouds” (Ps 68:4) and “the skies/heavens” (Ps 68:33) on this cherubim-chariot (Ps 68:17, cf. 18:10; 104:3–4) as the God of the skies who “thunders” above, “blows” His enemies away, and “pours down rain” for His land and people (Ps 68:2, 7–10, 33). The several closing references to Yahweh’s “power” (Ps 68:28, 33–35) make sense in light of the designation “the ark of your power” in Psalm 132:7–8 (so also in Ps 78:61). It is otherwise difficult, if not impossible, to explain the unity and development of Psalm 68 apart from this connection to the ritual procession of the cherubim-ark.
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Some hymns reflect affinities to particular pilgrim festivals. Psalm 66 commemorates when Yahweh “turned the sea into dry land” (Ps 66:6) and so connects with the Passover festival. Its structure also illustrates how individual thanksgiving and the thanksgiving sacrifices were incorporated into the worship at this festival. Psalm 65 mentions the fulfillment of vows, hints at the partaking of thanksgiving offerings (Ps 65:1, 4), and celebrates the rains that God has brought, while there is yet grain in the fields (Ps 65:9–13). These clues point to the Feast of Unleavened Bread (also known as Passover), at the time of the barley harvest but seven weeks before the wheat harvest (as noted in the Hebrew inscription, the Gezer Calendar; cf. also “the sheaf of the firstfruits of your harvest,” i.e., barley in Lev 23:4–16).
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Songs of Zion
Songs of Zion celebrate the sacrament of Yahweh’s dwelling on his sacred mountain.
Psalms 46; 48; 76; 84; 87 (note also 132:13–18) are called songs of Zion (so named in 137:3). Mount Zion was the hill on which the Solomonic temple was built. While most hymns call the congregation to celebrate Yahweh’s character and deeds, these songs focus on Yahweh special relationship to His sacred mountain (46:4; 48:1; 87:1).
Psalms 46, 48, and 76 confess that “God is … in Zion,” report that God has stilled the nations who assail it, and enjoin worshipers to acknowledge God as sovereign protector. Nations are also mentioned in Psalm 87, but here they come, not as aggressors, but as Yahweh’s pilgrims who may claim their birthright in Zion. Unusual as this may sound, other psalms refer to international participants in the worship of Yahweh (47:9; 96:7–9; 100:1).
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Psalms of Yahweh's Kingship
Most scholars assign Psalms 47; 93; 96; 97; 98; 99 to the genre of the psalms of Yahweh’s kingship. The psalms tend to be more international and cosmic in scope, with less emphasis on Israel’s special position. With the exception of Psalm 98, each contains the acclamation, “the Lord reigns” (Yhwh mlk). In most cases where a proper name immediately precedes this Hebrew verb, the phrase carries the meaning, “so-and-so has become king!” (1 Kgs 1:18; 15:25; 16:29; 22:41, 51; 2 Kgs 3:1; 15:13).
The psalms of Yahweh’s kingship echo the plot line of the God of the skies and reflect the ritual ascent of the cherubim-ark into the (cosmic) temple.
Strange as it might sound, these psalms celebrate Yahweh’s kingship by liturgically reenacting His “enthronement.” They do not suggest that at some prior time Yahweh was not king. They are analogous to the Easter hymn, “Christ the Lord Is Risen Today.” Rather than implying that Jesus is resurrected each year, this hymn celebrates Christ’s resurrection by contemporizing this event with the moment of worship.
Prominent in these psalms is the symbolism of the cherubim-ark, whereby Yahweh is portrayed as enthroned and also riding this chariot. Echoed here is the wider ancient Near Eastern tradition of cosmic divine kingship, whereby (a) the deity of the skies prevails over the chaotic waters, (b) is thereby acclaimed king, (c) whose temple/palace is constructed on His sacred mountain (see esp. Psalms 93 and 97).
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Individual Prayer Psalms
As individual prayers exhibit little connection to the national sanctuary and its traditions, they were likely performed by a village elder/Levite. The three subjects of the lament seek to evoke a response from “my God,” who should answer when called upon.
The individual prayers are Psalms 3; 4; 6; 7; 13; 17; 22; 25; 27; 31; 35; 38; 39; 40; 41; 42–43; 51; 54; 55; 56; 57; 59; 61; 64; 69; 70; 71; 77; 86; 88; 102; 109; 139; 140; 141; 142; 143. In some individual prayers the speaking “I” appears to be a representative liturgist leading a regular service, not a lone individual in special crisis (perhaps Pss 4; 25; 40; 57; 61; 64; 139). Some individual prayers reflect corporate concerns, such as social unrest (Pss 59; 64; 140) and the exile (Pss 77; 102), and thus perhaps corporate usage. The psalms of trust are Pss. 11; 16; 23; 62; 63; 91.
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Unlike the psalmic genres described thus far, the prayer psalms of the individual lack clear links to a sanctuary, congregation, and rituals. While they may on occasion refer to Yahweh’s sacred space (e.g., 3:4), they gave no indications that they were actually performed there, in contrast to the hymns and psalms of temple entry. They were probably used in less official, more private ceremonies, overseen by a liturgist, Levite, or elder, on the occasion of an individual’s special emergency. Especially in cases of sickness (e.g., Ps 38), it is more reasonable to assume that the psalm was invoked over the individual’s sickbed, rather requiring the individual be transported to a sanctuary in order to enjoy the benefits of a prayer psalm.
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Not surprisingly, these psalms also lack allusions to the national, historical traditions recorded in the hymns and corporate prayer psalms. Instead they reflect a simpler piety: a belief in “my God” who will answer when the petitioner calls.
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1. Address and introductory petition
“O Lord” (13:1)
“Be gracious to me and hear my prayer” (4:1)
2. Lament
a. I (speaker)
“How long must I put anxieties in my soul?” (13:2)
b. You (God)
“How long . . . ? Will you forget me forever?” (13:1)
c. They (foe)
“How long will my enemy be exalted over me?” (13:2)
3. Confession of trust
“But I in your loyalty have trusted” (13:5)
4. Petition
a. For favor
“Look, answer me” (13:3)
b. For intervention
“Give light to my eyes” (13:3)
c. Motive
“lest my enemy say, ‘I have prevailed over him,’” 13:4)
5. Vow of praise
“I will sing to the Lord” (13:6)
6. Thanksgiving in anticipation
“for he has acted on my behalf” (13:6)
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In the lament the distress is described in a way to evoke a response from Yahweh. Generally the I-lament should evoke His pity, the God-lament His sense of obligation to help, and the foe-lament His anger. Only a third of all prayer psalms (including individual and corporate) contain a lament against God, concerning His disposition (e.g., his wrath, forgetting, or hiding his face) or (non-) intervention, whether actively hostile (e.g., 89:42) or passively indifferent (e.g., 10:1). Among the prayer psalms we may distinguish between psalms of plea, where God is third-party to the distress, and psalms of complaint, where He is alleged to bear some responsibility.